David Hume :
Impressions and Ideas :
Like other empiricists,Hume also accepts that experience is
he only source of knowledge.According to him, there are only two sources of
knowledge : impressions and ideas.Hume used this word impression for the first time,for
experience.The only difference between impressions and ideas is their intensity
and distinctness.As he has written in the Treatise :
“All the perceptions of the human mind resolve themselves
into two distinct kinds,which I shall call impressions and ideas.The difference
between these consists in the degrees of force and liveliness,with which they
strike upon the mind,and make their way into our thought or consciousness.”1
Whatever was sensation and reflection in Locke,is impression
in Hume’s philosophy.We receive impressions,through both internal and external
organs.Through external organs we receive the impressions of touch ,taste
smell,sound and beauty while through mind which is the internal organ,we
receive impressions of feelings and emotions.According to Hume,these
impressions are intense,vivid and clear.Images created by these impressions on our mind are called ideas,by
Hume.Ideas are copies of impressions.These ideas are less intense,indistinct
and dim.Ideas are dependent on impressions for its existence.Impressions are
primary while ideas are secondary.He says :
“Those perceptions which enter with most force and
violence,we may name impressions;and under this name,I comprehend all our
sensations,passions,and emotions,as they make their first appearance in the
soul.By ideas,I mean the faint images of these in thinking and reasoning;such
as,for instance,are all the perceptions excited by the present
discourse,excepting only those which arise
from the sight and touch,and excepting the immediate pleasure or
uneasiness it may occasion.”2
Generally impressions are vivid and clear and ideas are dim
and indistinct.But sometimes ideas are as vivid and intense as impressions and
impressions are less intense like ideas.For example in the state of dream,madness,anger
e.t.c. .He himself writes about it :
“The common degrees of these are easily distinguished;though
it is not impossible, but in particular instances they may very nearly approach
to each other.Thus,in sleep,in a fever,in madness,or in any very violent
emotions of soul,our ideas may approach to our impressions:as,on the other
hand,it sometimes happens,that our impressions are so faint and low,that we
cannot distinguish them from our ideas.”3
Hume has accepted to types of impressions and ideas – simple
and complex.He writes in the Treatise :
“Simple perceptions or impressions and ideas,are such as
admit of no distinction nor separation.The complex are the contrary to
these,and may be distinguished into parts.”4
Though ideas and impressions appear always corresponding to
each other,yet he says that sometimes he finds that “many of our complex ideas
never had impressions that correspond to them,and that many of our complex
impressions never are copied in ideas.”5
But this exception does not apply to the simple ideas and
impressions.He says that, “I venture to affirm that the rule here holds without
any exception,and that every simple idea has a simple impression,which
resembles it,and every simple impression a correspondent idea.”6
Further he says that impressions may be divided into two
kinds- those of sensations and those of reflections.The first kind arises in
the soul originally from unknown causes.The second is derived,in a great
measure,from our ideas,and that in the following order.He writes in the
Treatise that an impression first strikes upon the senses and makes us perceive
heat or cold,thirst or hunger,pleasure or pain,of some kind or other.Of this
impression there is a copy taken by the mind,which remains after the impression
ceases;and this we call an idea.This idea of pleasure and pain,when it returns
upon the soul,produces the new impressions of desire and aversion,hope and
fear,which may properly be called impressions of reflection,because derived
from it.These again are copied by the memory and imagination,and become ideas
which perhaps in their turn give rise to other impressions and ideas,so that
the impressions of reflection are not only antecedent to their correspondent
ideas,but posterior to those of sensation and derived from them.
According to Hume ideas are of two types – simple and
complex.Simple ideas are the images of impressions while by combining these
simple ideas mind creates complex ideas.For complex ideas the presence of
simple impressions are not necessary.They may or may not be there.Complex ideas
may or may not be the images of the impressions.We could create complex ideas
by imagination or memory also.Or by combining simple ideas we can create
complex ideas.But impressions are necessary for simple ideas.
Our ideas are not loose or unconnected but are associated
with each other according to certain laws to which Hume calls laws of
association.These laws are of three types :
1.laws of resemblance
2.Laws of contiguity
3.Laws of cause and effect
Hume writes in the Treatise, “I have often observed
that,beside cause and effect,the two relations of resemblance and contiguity
are to be considered as associating principles of thought,and capable of
conveying the imagination from one idea to another.”7
Knowledge Concerning
Relations of Ideas and Knowledge Concerning Matters of Fact :
According to Hume,knowledge is of two types:
1.Knowledge of the relations of ideas.
2.Knowledge of the matters of fact.
Of the first kind are the truths of geometry,algebra and
arithmetic.This type of knowledge is called demonstrative knowledge,by Hume and
it is certain knowledge.That 2 + 2 = 4 .Propositions of this kind are based on
the operations of thought.These propositions are not based on the
facts of nature.This type of knowledge is certain and self-evident.Hume
writes in Enquiry :
“All the objects of human reason or enquiry may naturally be
divided into two kinds;Relations of Ideas and Matters of Fact.Of the first kind
are the sciences of Geometry,Algebra and Arithmatic,and in short every
affirmation which is either intuitively or demonstratively certain.That the
square of the hypotenuse is equal to the square of the two sides,a proposition
which expresses,a relation between these numbers.Propositions of this kind are
discoverable by the mere operation of thought,without dependence on what is
anywhere existent in the universe.”8
There is flux of ideas in our mind.It goes on
continuously,without any break.But these ideas are not disordered.They are
associated with each other according to the laws which Hume calls laws of
association.If there wouldn’t be any law behind the association of these ideas
then these ideas will become meaningless.
Laws of association of ideas are of three types :
1. Association of resemblance or similarity.
2.Association of contiguity in space and time.
3.Association of causality.
The knowledge of matters of fact is based on
sense-experience.That’s is why it is not certain and distinct.We cannot have
any universal and necessary knowledge through sense-organs.Through sense-organs
we can know only particular incidents or events or objects.On the basis of
these particular events we induce the general conclusion that the things will
happen in the same manner in the future.This type of knowledge is based on
belief.But we don’t have any assurance that the things will be the same in
future.This assumption of the regularity and uniformity of nature is the basis
of our practical life.Though the assumption of necessity is merely probable.The
contradictory fact is also possible in cases of knowledge of matters of
fact.Certainty is psychological necessity.It is due to imagination.
Whole knowledge related to the matters of fact is based on
the theory of causation.We infer the existence of something on the basis of
perception of something because we have established a relation of cause and
effect between them. He writes in the Treatise:
“All reasonings concerning matter of fact to be founded on
the relation of cause and effect.By means of that relation alone we can go
beyond the evidence of our memory and senses……Here it is constantly supposed
that there is a connection between the present fact and that which is inferred
from it…..Heat and light are collateral effects of fire,and one effect may
quite be inferred from the other.”9
But according to Hume it is based on merely belief.There
isn’t any certainty in them.He says that :
“Suppose a person though endowed with the strongest faculties
of reason ,to be brought on a sudden in this world,he would indeed immediately
observe a continual succession of objects and one event following another,but
he would not be able to discover anything farther.”10
Since we cannot accept
the theory of causation as certain knowledge,any knowledge based on this
will also be uncertain and probable.In the words of Hume himself :
“In knowledge the opposite of what is known is
inconceivable,but as the opposite of every matter of fact is conceivable ,there
remains always the possibility ….that experience may at any time vary from its
own past character.”11
According to Hume there is difference between knowledge and
belief.By the word knowledge Hume means only relations of ideas.Matters of fact
is merely belief for Hume.Propositions of maths are analytical,according to
Hume.Predicate is merely analysis of the subject.Predicate doesn’t give any new
information about about subject.This type of knowledge,according to Hume,is
knowledge of relations .This relation is between ideas.We are concerned about
the reality of the ideas.Hume calls this type of knowledge as demonstrative
knowledge.While contradictory statements of the matters of fact is possible.
‘Sun will rise in the east’ and ‘Sun wouldn’t rise in the east’,both these
statements are true at the same time.
Induction and Causality
:
Theory of causation is the central theme of Hume’s
philosophy.This theory of causation is the basis of other theories.It is
considered as universal and necessary theory.The relation of cause and effect
is based on invariable concomitance.Whenever one of them is present,other one
must also be present,while in the absence of one another one must be also
absent.Also there must not be any exception of this rule.
Hume says that if this basis of all knowledge will be proved
invalid,then all the other theories will fall flat themselves.He tries to
analyse this theory thus.Locke accepted matter as cause of our
sensations.According to Berkeley the cause of our sensation is soul.But if we
will try to analyse this concept of cause once,all the theories will be
refuted.He says that through our sense organs we cannot know the necessary
relation between the two objects.We can know only that one is antecedent and
another is consequent.But through succession we establish any necessary
relation of cause and effect between the two.As he writes in the Enquiry :
“When we look towards external objects and consider the
operation of causes we are never able in a single instance,to discover any
power or any necessary connection,any quality,which binds the effect to the
cause,and renders the one as infallible consequence of the other.We only find
,that the one does actually in fact,follow the other.We only find,that the one
does actually in fact,follow the other.The impulse of one billiard ball is
attended with motion in the second.This is the whole that appears to the
outward senses……..Consequently,there is nothing which can suggest the idea of
necessary connection.”12
In the presence of one object we infer the existence of
another one.The cause of our inference is our previous experience.He says :
“When we infer effects from causes,we must establish the
existence of these causes;which we have only two ways of doing,either by an
immediate perception of our memory or senses ,or by an inference from other
causes;which causes again we must ascertain in the same manner,either by a
present impression or by an inference from their causes,and so on,till we
arrive at some object,which we see or remember.”13
On account of our past experiences we assume that the future
will be the same.Same cause will produce the same effect.But according to Hume
this assumption is merely psychological.When we see repeatedly any incidence
occurring after some incidence,we accept it as cause and effect relation.
We experience two incidents separately but assume them as
cause and effect.We think that fire is the cause of burn,though we experience
two incidents separately of fire and burn.
When we experience this succession repeatedly,it becomes
custom and due to this custom we accept it as cause and effect.Thus necessity
is merely psychological.
We believe in the uniformity of nature.That’s why we think
that whatever happened in the past,same will be repeted in the future because
there is uniformity in nature.But Hume says that through experience we don’t
know anything about the uniformity of nature.Instead the sequence of events may
differ.Cause may not produce the effect.So,this theory of causation cannot
become universal and necessary.This is the logical interpretation of the theory
of causation.
From the point of view of psychology Hume interpretes
causation.He says that when we perceive contiguity in time and space and
succession between two incidents,then we naturally establish association
between the two.For example so many times we have seen in the past fire and
heat together,so we have established the relation of association between the
two.While this association is merely succession.This association is merely
habit of our mind.
This association,according to Hume is probable not necessary
and universal law.Our knowledge is limited to th sense-organs but causation is
necessary and universal.So we don’t deserve to say anything about it.At the
same time we cannot know the necessity of causation through reason as
well.Reason only combines and divides ideas and impressions.Anything which is
not based on impression and ideas cannot be known by reason as well.
Thus we can say that there isn’t any necessary relation between
cause and effect.Cause doesn’t have any power which can produce
effect.Necessity lies in our mind,not in the incidents.
The External World and
the Self :
Hume raises his objection against the assumption of the
existence of external world.We naturally believe in the existence of external
world of objects without verifying it.We should take help of reason to
ascertain its truth.He says that slightest philosophical contemplation will
suffice to prove the falsity of this instinctive opinion of men.Since we cannot
know beyond impressions and ideas,we don’t have any right to say something
about the external world of object.We cannot ascertain any relation between
objects and our perceptions.Since we cannot know anything about objects as
such,we cannot ascertain any relation of cause and effect between them,Matter
devoid of primary and secondary
qualities is merely something unknown to which any relation cannot be
established.We receive impressions and ideas only,but we cannot prove that they
are being produced by the objects , soul or by God.We have at our disposal only
flux of impressions and ideas.We can compare them,unite them,divide them,thus
by analyzing them we can have only demonstrative knowledge.By the repeated
observation of certain type of events we create habit or custom to relate ideas
with others by the relation of cause and effect.So we should limit our analysis
to impressions and ideas.Taking into consideration our limitation any
philosopher should not try to transcend the phenomenal world of ideas and
impressions.We should not expect any necessary and definite knowledge regarding
the origin of our impressions or the ultimate reality of the universe.
The effort to establish rational cosmology is futile
one.Since the knowledge of soul as such is also out of question,so there is no
possibility of rational psychology,either.The concept of substance regarding
mind or matter is meaningless.
Presonal Identity :
According to Hume our knowledge is limited to the qualities
only.And it is not necessary to assume the concept of substance as the substratum
of qualities.He asks from the philosophers,who assert the existence of
soul,that from which sense organ they could know the soul ?Whether it is
colour,or beauty or smell or sound or taste ? If it exists,then it must be
conceivable by mind.But whenever we enter into ourselves we find nothing but
the feeling of pain or pleasure,grief or joy ,passions and sensations e.t.c.
.As he writes in the Treatise :
“….when I enter most intimately into what I call myself ,I always stumble on some
particular perception or other,of heat or cold,light or shade,love or
hatred,pain or pleasure.I never can catch myself
at any time without a perception,and
never can observe anything but the perception.”14
He says that if there is anything eternal like soul then why
do we die?Why ,we don’t feel our existence in deep sleep? So, we can accept its
existence to the limit of experience only.With the death of the body,it also
ceases to exist.He writes in the Treatise :
“When my perceptions are removed for any time,as by sound
sleep,so long am I insensible of myself
,and may truly be said not to exist.And were all my perceptions removed by
death,and could I neither think, nor feel,nor see,nor love,nor hate,after the
dissolution of my body,I should be entirely annihilated,nor do I conceive what
is further requisite to make me a
perfect nonentity.”15
He says that mind is a flux of various impressions.Our
knowledge is limited to the impressions and ideas.And these impressions and
ideas are only momentry.We don’t find anything which is eternal of which we
could call soul.He says :
“But setting aside some metaphysicians of this kind,I may
venture to affirm of the rest of mankind,that they are nothing but a bundle or collection
of different perceptions,which succeed each other with an inconceivable
rapidity,and are in a perpetual flux and movement.”16
He says that we don’t find anything which we could call
substance.So co this concept of
substance is merely combination of simple ideas,through imagination.As he has
written in the Treatise :
“There is properly no simplicity
in it at one time,nor identity in
different,whatever natural propension we may have to imagine that simplicity
and identity.”17
As we assume two incidents as cause and effect,in the same
manner we accept soul as the cause of various impressions.So,by refuting the
theory of cause and effect he has refuted soul also as the cause of
impressions. He writes :
“An object,whose different coexistent parts are bound
together by a close relation,operates upon the imagination after much the same
manner as one perfectly simple and
indivisible,and requires not a much greater stretch of thought in order to its
conception.From this simplicity of operation we attribute a simplicity to
it,and feign a principle of union as the support of this simplicity,and the
centre of all the different parts and qualities of the object.”18
He asks if we could know about soul,then from which
impression do we know the self? Since soul is the cause of all impressions,so
how there can be any impression of the soul itself?And we don’t know anything
other than impressions and ideas.AS he writes in the Treatise :
“Identity depends on the relations oh ideas;and these
relations produce,by means of that easy transition they occasion.But as the
relations,and the easiness of the transition may diminish by insensible
degrees,we have no just standard by which we can decide any dispute concerning
the time when they acquire or lose a title to the name of identity.All the
disputes concerning the identity of connected objects are merely verbal,except
so far as the relation of parts gives rise to some fiction or imaginary
principle of union … .”19
Rejection of
Metaphysics :
“Hume ,therefore,is chiefly a sceptic in the sense that he
thinks it impossible for the human understanding to discover the real nature of
thing as they exist in themselves independent of experience.He is sceptic in
metaphysics…..in religion.He is by no means a sceptic in mathematics,the
natural sciences,the social sciences.”20
This very statement made by Wright shows the real sense of
skepticism of Hume.Since he was pure empiricist and the limit of knowledge
according to an empiricist is sense-experience,so anything which is beyond the
approach of sense-organs,cannot be accepted to exist,by this theorist.Scepticism
is the natural outcome of Hume’s pure empiricism.According to Hume we have only
two sources of knowledge: impressions and ideas.On the basis of these two
sources of knowledge,it is impossible to know anything about soul,God and
matter as such.
He says that there are two types of knowledge – relations of
ideas and matters of fact.Mathematical knowledge is based on relations of
ideas.This type of knowledge is necessary and certain.While scientific knowledge
is based on matters of fact.This type of knowledge is contingent.Since,the
limit of our knowledge is qualities only,we cannot have any certain and
necessary knowledge.Thus,he arrived at the conclusion that only definite and
non-factual knowledge is possible in maths while indefinite and factual
knowledge is possible in science.So,no definite and factual knowledge is
possible.Mathematical knowledge is a-priori and non-factual while scientific
knowledge is factual and based on experience.The real contradiction lies in the
philosophical knowledge which claims to be factual and a-priori as well.This is
impossible,according to the empiricist,Hume.Basis of all scientific knowledge
is the theory of causality which is based on experience.And experience is not
reliable source of knowledge.Thus he reached to the conclusion that we cannot
know anything about entities like soul,God and matter as such.That is why he is
called sceptic.
Scepticism :
“A characteristic of skepticism is that it does not present
any theory but shows that there is no logical relation between the real nature
of a belief and its form existing in our mind.”21
In the philosophy of Hume empiricism reached to its
culmination and turned into skepticism.He was sceptical about his sceptic theory.As
he writes in his Treatise:
“Can I be sure that in leaving all established opinions I am
following truth ?”22
He contemplates about his philosophy in the Abstract that why
his philosophy might be called skeptical and himself answers that because his
writing ‘tends to give us a notion of the imperfections and narrow limits of
human understaning.’ While according to Russell his philosophy turned to be
sceptic due to his rejection of induction.
According to others Hume was not sceptic but agnostic.As according
to T.H.Huxley, “Agnosticism may be stated in various ways but they all amount
to this that it is wrong for a man to say that he is certain of objective truth
of any proposition unless he can produce evidence which logically justified
that certainty.”23
According to some critics since Hume believes that we cannot
say definitely about the existence of anything outside the limits of our
immediate experience regarding it because we do not have any proof for our
statement.Thus,in epistemology Hume’s approach is agnostic.
Reason and Passion :
Differentiating between reason and passion,Hume says that
reason studies about triangles and circles and proceeds from known relations to
infer unknown one.While in the field of morality,till we don’t know everything
about someone,we cannot praise or blaim that person.He says that in the realm
of morality passion is the only basis of our judgements.He tries to prove his
moral sense theory by saying that all our moral judgements arise from the
feeling of happiness and sorrow.We I,we impose on our moral judgements of good
or evil,virtue or vice,these feelings of happiness and sorrow.He says that
morality is mainly ‘felt’ not ‘created’.But we relate our feeling to ethical
concepts.Whatever makes us feel happy,we consider that as good while anything
which gives us feeling of sorrow,we consider that as evil.He says that virtue
is a feeling of satisfaction.If any action gives us a feeling of happiness,we
call that action virtuous.This very fact implies on every emotive judgement and
judgements regarding beauty as well.Thus we see that Hume’s ethical concepts
are based on passions.
1. David Hume – A Treatise of Human Nature
2. Ibid .
3. Ibid .
4.Ibid .
5. Ibid .
6. Ibid .
7.Ibid.
8. David Hume – An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding,p.-
23
9. Ibid , p.- 24
10.Ibid, p. – 36
11.N K Smith – The philosophy of David Hume, p. -365
12.David Hume – An Enquiry Concerning Human
Understading,p.-53
13.David Hume – Treatise of Human Nature , p. – 85
14. David Hume – A Treatise of Human Nature , p. – 239
15. Ibid .
16 .Ibid.
17. Ibid , p. – 240
18. Ibid , p. – 228
19 .Ibid.
20. W K Wright,A History of Modern Philosophy,p.-23
21. R N Sharma – Indian & Western Metaphysics &
Epistemology,p.-170
22. David Hume – Treatise of Human Nature.
23. T.H.Huxley, Essays Upon Some Controverted Questions
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